Generation Of Computer (Explained-In-Details)

Generation Of Computer (Explained-In-Details)

Generation of Computer

Intensive research and countless experiments on computers led to the sophistication, versatility, and reduced costs of what had once been expensive and huge machines with limited functions. The growth and availability of electronic components have enhanced the possibility of a drastic reduction in size, cost, and failure of components. From the early 40s to date the reliability of computer has increased by 100 folds and the speed of operation has also increased by 10000 folds. Hence, the computers belonging to different times used electronic components with subsequent improvements. Four distinct generations of computers can be recognized.

The First Generation Computers

This generation roughly covers the period 1945-1955. The main components in use were vacuum tubes. The first generation computers had the following characteristics:

1. Large in size.
2. Rigid in operation.
3. Limited memory and computing capacity. Slow- operating speed (millisecond). Contained vacuum tubes.
4. Used machine language to program. Generated more heat.
5. Too many maintenance problems.
6. Very expensive.

The Second Generation Computers

The second generation of computers covers the period of 1956-1965. This generation of computers is distinguished by the use of transistors. A transistor is a tiny semiconductor device. The computers of this generation had the following characteristics:

1. Considerable reduction in physical size. Comparatively more reliable.
2. Comparatively large memory.
3. Greater operating speed (microsecond).
4. Contained transistors as the essential component and consumed less power.
5. Improved computing capacity.
6. Generated less heat as compared to the first generation computers.
7. Faster and better input-output devices.

The Third Generation Computers

As the next step, functions of several transistors were put together on a single chip (wafer) of silicon. These chips are called Integrated Circuit (IC) chips. In the third generation computers, the main component in use was ICs. This generation of computers covers the period of 1965-1975. The computers of this generation had the following characteristics:

1. Greater miniaturization.
2. Flexible in operation.
3. Large memory.
4. High operating speed (nanoseconds). Very reliable.
5. Contained ICs (Integrated Circuits). Random access is possible.
6. Time-sharing and multiprocessing.
7. Higher-level languages like COBOL, FORTRAN, etc. were used. Compatibility with other systems.

The Fourth Generation Computers

The advancement in computer electronics could pack thousands of components into very small assemblies known as LSI (Large Scale Integration) and this led to the production of fourth-generation computers. The microprocessor was developed where an entire CPU was accommodated on a single chip. Intel 4004 was the first microprocessor that was updated to Intel 8080 and this invention led to the beginning of the usage of compact design and is still used in a major way. These systems provide increased input-output capabilities and storage capacity, longer component life, greater reliability, modular design, and increased speed. This generation of computers includes the computers developed from 1975 to the present day. Characteristics of the Fourth Generation Computers are as follows:

1. Used Large Scale Integration (LSI) and Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI).
2. Increased input-output capabilities. High processing speed.
3. User-friendly.
4. Comparatively more diminutive in size and more reliable.

The Fifth Generation Computers (Future Generation)

Many attempts have been made for several years to develop more efficient processors by using genetically engineered proteins. It is expected that the computers having such processors will understand natural languages and have knowledge processing capabilities called Artificial Intelligence.

Till the fourth generation computer, the significant stress was on improving the hardware to achieve processing speed, but scientists began feeling the lack of intelligence in computers, so they are trying to give new artificial intelligence to the fifth generation computers. These computers will then have the thinking power and capability to make decisions like human beings and prove better than a man in certain areas. These machines will be capable of knowledge processing, handling billions of instructions per second, and unimaginable storing capacity. High-level languages will become obsolete for these machines, and new computer languages and related software will be developed. The fifth-generation computers are expected to have the following characteristics.

1. Artificial Intelligence.
2. High-performance multiprocessors.
3. Thinking power and capability to understand natural languages and make decisions like human beings.
4. Very high processing speed and storage capacity
5. Intelligent programming Knowledge-based system.

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Number System In Computer

Number System In Computer

Number System

A computer is a man-made electronic device. It does not have its own intelligence but is capable of carrying out different operations. The operation of the computer is based on certain principles, methods, and logic. This deals with the conceptual aspect of data representation within the computer and conversion among binary, octal, and hexadecimal number systems.

In modern computers, memory and processing units are made up of a set of silicon chips, each of them containing a large number of transistors, A transistor is a two-state device like a switch having an OFF state and an ON state. The OFF state can be represented by 0 and the ON state is represented by 1. These 0 and 1 are called Binary Digits or BITS. Thus, a computer does not understand anything other than 0 and 1 i.e. computer circuits can respond only to the binary state. So data and program must be coded in a binary form before it goes into the computer.

ON    OFF   ON    OFF   ON    OFF   ON   OFF

1        0        1         0        1         0        1       0

The collection of eight such switches each representing a bit is called a Byte.

i. e. 8 bits = 1 byte

A byte is equivalent to one ASCII character i.e. a number, a letter, a mathematical symbol, or a punctuation mark.

Binary Coding

The normal character (alphabet, number, etc.) as we know has to be broken down to a set of simple codes, so a computer can understand it. All the characters have been coded for the sake of easy exchange of information between the different systems and to make communication possible between users and the machine. ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) coding system specifies all the lower and upper case letters, numbers, punctuation symbols, and special control commands. The system uses 8 bits to code each character, the first 7 bits represent the character and the eighth bit (called parity bit) enables the computer to check the information we have put in. A maximum of 256 characters can be coded under the ASCII coding system.

For example, the ASCII code for A = 65 when A is pressed the binary equivalent of 65 i.e. 1000001 is transmitted as pulses.

 Digit: A single character in a numbering system or counting system having a specific radix or base.

Bit, Nibble, Byte, and Computer Word 

Computers do not understand normal alphabets and numbers in the form we understand. It has to be broken down into computer understandable code with the help of a coding system so that communication between the user and computer is possible. Previously, computers were based on EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code) coding system (eight bits coding system), but most of the modern computers are based on ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) coding system. ASCII coding system uses 7 bits to represent a character or a number and one bit is added before seven bits to form eight bits code. The additional bit is called the parity bit. The parity bit allows the computer to double-check the information we have input in.

Bit: It stands for Binary digiT. A single digit in a binary number a 0 or 1 is called a bit. Within the computer, a bit is physically a memory cell, a magnetic spot on a disk or tape, which can represent a binary state (0 or 1). 

Nibble: It is a combination of four bits i.e. one Nibble consists of four bits. 

Example: 0101 is one Nibble.

Byte:  It is a common unit of computer storage. It is made up of eight bits. 

Byte: Example: 01001101 is one byte. 

Computer Word:

It is the computer's internal storage unit that refers to the number of bits the computer uses for processing at one time. It differs from computer to computer. 

FOR example, A 16-bit computer processes two bytes at the same time i.e it uses two bytes of words. A 32-bit computer processes four bytes at a time, so the word length for that computer is four bytes.

Binary to Hexadecimal Conversion 

The method for conversion of a binary number to hexadecimal number is similar to that of conversion of a binary number to octal number except the grouping is done using four bits as the hexadecimal digit is represented in terms of four bits.

Hexadecimal to Binary Conversion

The method for conversion of hexadecimal number to binary number is similar to that of conversion of octal number to binary number except for the binary representation of each hexadecimal digit is done in terms of four bits.

Octal to Hexadecimal Conversion 

An octal number can be converted into its equivalent hexadecimal number by, first converting to binary and then the decimal equivalent to hexadecimal number.

Hexadecimal to Octal Conversion

A hexadecimal number can be converted into its equivalent octal number by, first converting to binary and then the binary equivalent to octal number, or first converting to decimal and then the decimal equivalent to hexadecimal number.

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Guided media and Unguided media with example (Explained-In-Details)

 Guided media and Unguided media with example (Explained-In-Details)

Wired or bounded media (Guided Media)

Bounded media is the type of transmission media in which data and signals are transferred in a closed conductor through the use of cables or wires. Two or more devices that are near to each other can be connected directly using cables. This is an easy, fast and secure way to transfer data and information from one computer to another. The three types of cables that are used in a computer network are:

1. Twisted pair Wire
2.  Co-axial Cable
3. Fiber Optic Cable

Twisted pair cable

Twisted pair cables are used only for lower bandwidth. It consists of two isolated strands of copper wire twisted around each other. It is also widely used in landline telephone. The RJ-45 connector is the most popular connector used in twisted pair cables. There are two types of twisted-pair cables. They are UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) and STP (Shielded Twisted Pair).

UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair)

UTP cables do not have metal shields except plastic coating. It contains several twisted pairs of wires with a simple plastic casing. It is commonly used to transfer data and information in telephone and LAN connections. It is cheaper and easier to work with, but does not offer high bandwidth and good protection from interference. Its grade starts from cat1 to cat7. It can support data transmission rates from 10 to 100 Mbps.

STP (Shielded Twisted Pair)

STP cable is shielded with a metal sheath along with a plastic coating. It offers high bandwidth and good protection from interferences. Cabling is more difficult to install and more expensive than UTP. Its bandwidth is 10 to 500 Mbps (Megabits per second). RJ 45 connector is used in STP. It is cheaper than fiber optic cable. It provides better protection against EMI(Electromagnetic Interference) than UTP.

Co-axial cable

Co-axial cable is made up of copper or aluminum wire with an inner conductor surrounded by an insulating layer and again surrounded by conducting shield. So it consists of two conductors inner and outer conductors. It carries higher bandwidth and noise immunity. It does not bend readily. This cable consists of one or more small cables in a protective covering. It offers a very high data transfer rate and can be placed underground and laid on the floors of lakes and oceans. BNC and T connectors are the most popular connector used in co-axial cable. 

Fiber optic cable

Fiber optic cable is a thin filament of plastic or glass fiber wrapped in a protective jacket to transmit data. It consists of strands of glass-like thread, each about the diameter of a human hair. It offers a high-speed data transmission rate because data travel as high-speed pulses of light. So it is a widely used cable especially in ISP (Internet Service Provider). ST (Straight Tip) connector, SMA (Screw Mounted Adaptors), SC (Subscriber Connector), etc. are the common connectors used in fiber optic cable.

Wireless or unbounded media (Unguided Media)

Unbounded media is the type of transmission media in which data and signals are transferred through the help of air. It is used to transfer data within large geographical areas or globally without the use of interconnecting wires or cables. It uses other components such as radio signals, microwaves, or infrared to connect networks for receiving and transmitting electronic data. The types of wireless communication are:

1. Radio wave
2. Microwave System
3. Infrared
4. Satellite Communication

1. Radio Wave

The radio wave is an electronic magnetic wave. It is used in rural and hilly areas. The data and information can be changed into audio signals using high-frequency waves based on frequency, amplitude, and phase modulation. It is a wave or RADIO WAVES pattern received after the modulation of signals. The types of modulation signal are FM (Frequency Modulation): The waves are modulated due to their frequency change. AM (Amplitude Modulation): The waves are modulated due to their amplitude change. PM (Phase Modulation): The waves are modulated due to their phase change.

2. Microwave Systems

Microwave signals are similar to radio and television signals and are used to transmit data signals through the atmosphere. It provides high-speed data transmission. It is also known as the line of sight communication as signals cannot be bent and cannot pass through obstacles like hills and tall buildings. So, very high towers are used to mount the signals that should be in a clear line of sight. Chain of towers I required to transmit the microwave signals in a long distance. Repeaters are used to amplify the signal. The other important devices are the digital modem and antenna.

3. Infrared

Infrared light is an electromagnetic form of radiation. It comes from heat and thermal radiation, and it is not visible to the naked eyes. In infrared transmission, senders can be simple Light Emitting Diode (LED) or laser diodes. Photodiode act as receivers. Infrared is used in wireless technology devices or systems that convey data through infrared radiation. It is used for short-range communications and control. Infrared technology is used in instruction detectors; robot control systems, medium-range line of sight laser communication, cordless microphone, headsets, modems, etc.

4. Satellite communication

Both microwaves signals and telephone signals can be relayed to an earth station for transmission to a communication satellite. Satellite communication is used to transfer data wirelessly worldwide. The earth station consists of a satellite disk that functions as an antenna communication equipment to transmit and receive data from satellites passing overhead. It is not disturbed by hills and tall buildings and is visible from any point. So sender and receiver can easily communicate with each other using antenna by aiming the satellite. It is very expensive for placing satellites along the earth's orbit. It is an artificial satellite placed in outer space and most of the countries are using their own satellite to communicate.

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Computer Network Components

Computer Network Components

Different network component

The basic elements of a computer network include hardware, software, and protocols. The hardware used in the network is a modem, routers, switches, bridges, hubs, etc.

MODEM

MODEM stands for Modulation and Demodulation. The modem is a device that directly converts the digital signal from a computer into analog form for transmission over an analog link such as a telephone line which is called the modulation phase. It receives analog signals from the phone line and converts them into digital signals for the computer which is called the demodulation phase. So, it is a device that connects computers to ISP (Internet Service Provider) with the help of a telephone line or router device. The modem which is placed inside the CPU Casing is called an internal modem. The modem which is placed outside the Casing is called an external modem. Wireless modems convert digital data into radio signals and vice versa. Modems came into existence in 1960. The main features of modem are:

1. Automatic cable sensor and calling card dialing
2.  Call progress detection and caller ID
3. Analog Cellular and GSM communications
4. Dialing stored phone numbers and digital line guard
5. Exclusive line probing and redialing the last dialed number

NIC

It is a Network Interface Card, which connects each computer to the wiring to the network. NIC is placed in motherboard expansion slots. It provides a port on the back of the computer to connect to the network. It controls the flow of data to and from computers in a network environment. It is used in LAN. Token ring and Ethernet are examples of NIC cards.

Hub

Hub is a connectivity device. It contains multiple ports for connecting to network components. It connects the computers in a star topology. It is simple, easier to install, low in cost, as compared to other devices. It can receive or send information data, so data packets are sent to all connected devices.

Switch

The switch is a connective device that is capable of forwarding packets directly to the ports associated with particular network addresses. It coordinates file servers and computers. The selected computer can get information through the switch. The switch is new technology and intelligent as compared to the hub. It works faster than a hub.

Connector

Connectors attach components together that are used to connect communication media with network devices. Several types of connectors are available, serving various purposes. It connects NIC cards such as an Ethernet card. It connects cable segments. RJ-45 connector for UTP cable, ST connector for fiber optics cable, BNC connector for co-axial cable, etc. is the different types of connectors. Bridge and gateway are the two connectors that link between two network systems.

Bridge

Bridge connects networks using the same communication protocols or similar networks so that information can be passed from one to the other. The signals are inspected by the bridge and decide whether to forward.

Gateway

The gateway connects networks using different communication protocols or dissimilar networks. It is also called a protocol converter and sends data in any network layer. It is more complex than a switch or router.

Repeater

The repeater is a network device that accepts weak signals and regenerates the signal over the same network to extend the length to which the signal can transmit. It makes it possible for long-distance data transfer. It does not amplify the signal. When the signal becomes weak, they copy the signal bit by bit and regenerate it at the original strength. It is a two-port device.

Router

A router is a device that is used to connect different LANs and WANs in the network. It receives transmitted messages and forwards them to their correct destinations over the most efficient available route. It is a device that routes data packets based on their IP addresses. It has a dynamically updating routing table based on which they make decisions on routing the data packets.

NOS

NOS stands for Network Operating System. It is the Operating System that can support controls and manage the computer network environment. Examples of Network Operating systems are Windows XP, Windows NT, server, UNIX, LINUX, Novel Netware, etc. The most popular Network Operating System is Novell Netware. The major functions of a Network Operating System are  

1. It is used to set up and install a computer network.
2. It enables users to have access, manages, and control all the resources. 
3. It allows adding or removing users from the network.

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What is the best online payment system? Online-payment-gateway-in-Nepal

What is the best online payment system? Online-payment-gateway-in-Nepal

Online payment gateway in Nepal

An international online payment gateway from Nepal just started at the end of 2017 provides a safe, secure and easy payment solution. Both Visa and MasterCard have accepted credit cards for online payment gateways in Nepal.

The most used online payment gateways in Nepal are:

1. Esewa: It is a trusted and recognized Internet payment service provider offering all types of online payment solutions operating since 2009.
2.  Khalti: It is known as an online payment provider for services as mobile balance recharging, bill payments, and online ticket booking.
3. I pay: It is used as an online payment service provider that allows for easy payments of utility bills and mobile balance top-ups.
4.  Qpay: It has revolutionized the mobile payment option into a user-friendly and simple payment gateway or payment application. 
5. nPay: It is an online payment service provider that works together with the banks for an easy setup of the payment gateway. Focusing on m-banking, e-banking and accepts credit and debit cards.
6. IME Pay: It is known as the mobile payment service in Nepal, IME Pay allows its consumers to pay easily and safely by mobile. Payments such as utility bills, money transfers, mobile top-up, and even the withdrawal of cash at local IME agents are possible.
7. ePay: It is an e-payment or electronic payment system from where no bank account is needed, it allows for a fast and safe payment from cash to digital.
8. PayWay: It is a basic online payment service provider that allows merchants to integrate a payment gateway into their website.

Types Of E-Commerce

Types of E-Commerce

It can be run in different models. The three basic types of E-Commerce are:

1. Business-to-Business (B2B) 
2. Business-to-Customer (B2C)
3. Customer -to-Customer (C2C)

Business to Business (B2B)

Business to Business E-Commerce activity between business companies. The transactions are usually carried out through Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) in B2B. EDI is an automated format of exchanging information between businesses over private networks. The individual customer cannot buy from this type of E-Commerce. Manufacturers and wholesalers typically operate with this type of Electronic Commerce.

Business to Customer (B2C)

Business to Customer (B2C) is an E-Commerce activity that is focused on customers. It establishes the electronic business relationships between the business organization and the final customer. It corresponds to the retail section of E-Commerce. The E-Commerce website is the main platform where all the business transactions take place between a business organization and customer directly in B2C. For instance, a book retailer would be a B2C company such as Amazon.com.

Customer to Customer (C2C)

Customer to Customer (C2C) is an E-Commerce activity, which uses an auction-style model or is conducted between customers. It enables customers to directly deal with each other. The transactions are conducted via an online platform where the transactions are actually carried out. E-Commerce websites help customer to sell their assets like residential property, cars, motorcycles, etc., or rent a room by publishing their information on the website. The website may or may not charge the customer for its services. Hamrobaza com is an example of a C2C website in Nepal. The other example of this is peer auction giant, E Bay.

M-Commerce (MobilE-Commerce)

M-commerce (MobilE-Commerce) is the extended version of E-Commerce. It is the buying and selling of goods and services through wireless technology i.e., handheld devices such as smartphones and personal digital assistants (PDA). It is also known as next-generation E-Commerce. The content delivery over wireless devices becomes faster, more secure, and scalable for digital commerce transactions. This includes purchases on websites or apps, paying for travel, hotel, events or bills, or any type of commerce The examples of m-commerce are purchasing airline tickets, top-up charges, fun transfer, purchasing movie tickets, balance inquiry, utility payment, and restaurant hotel booking and reservation. 

Online Payment

Online payment or E-Payment refers to money that is exchanged electronically. I payment collected over the Internet is accepting online payment. Online payment is the transaction that results in the transfer of monetary funds from the customer ban or credit card account to a bank account. It is one of the major components of an E-Commerce transaction. It is the payment for buying goods or services through the Internet using different online payment gateway.

The typical online payment process has the following stages:

1. The customer submits the payment information to the merchant. For example, the customer completes the payment form on the merchant website and submits the information
2. The merchant submits the payment information to the online payment gateway.
3. The online payment gateway submits the payment to the payment processor.
4. The payment processor authorizes the payment and responds to the payment gateway
5. The payment gateway responds back to the merchant
6. The merchant responds back to the customer showing if the online payment was successful or not and taking the appropriate action.

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Business Opportunity Of Social Media And Its Threats

Business Opportunity Of Social Media And Its Threats

Opportunities of Social Media

Social media may take the form of a variety of tech-enabled activities. These activities include photo sharing, blogging, social networks, video sharing, business networks, virtual worlds, etc. Governments and politicians use social media to engage with constituents and voters. Social media is used to keep in touch with friends and family individuals. People will use various social media applications to network career opportunities and share their thoughts, feelings, insight, and emotions. Social media is an indispensable tool for business. Companies use the platform to find and engage with customers, drive sales through advertising and promotion, and offer customer service or support.

Some of the opportunities and benefits of social media are as follow:

1. Revenue

The most apparent opportunity is to generate revenue. This can be done through advertising products services within the social media platform. To advertise on social media, the ads can be linked to media pages or websites. This can be able to benefit from social media without needing to channel.

2. Brand development

Using social media allows customers to connect and interact with businesses on a more personal. If you already have an established brand, social media might be an opportunity to further develop the brand.

3. Target audience

Customers can find you through social media platforms. We can choose to maintain a presence on particular platforms that are in line with the target audience. For example, by targeting young people you could reach them through Snapchat. If seeking business customers, LinkedIn may be the best channel.

4. Customer interaction

You can deliver improved customer service and respond effectively to feedback. Positive feedback is public and can be persuasive to other potential customers. Negative feedback highlights areas for improvement.

5. Attracting customers

Social media can be a good way of attracting new customers. For example, when considering social media campaigns, you could try to attract followers with promotions or giveaways. Once you have a good following you can focus on more personalized social media campaigns to encourage them to stay.

Social Media Threats

Social media is a collection of Internet-based websites that promote the personal and business-focused interaction of individuals worldwide. There are many threats or risks with the popularity of social media. They are:

A. Social engineering

Social media platforms allow attackers to find personal information that can be used to target specific individuals. Using information from employee profiles, a plausible fake account can be created to establish trust over time. Once the trust is built, the attacker foursquare might start asking for specific information, like internal server names, project names, open an infected document, or visit a prepared website that will drop a backdoor onto their computer.

b. Targeted phishing attacks 

Such attacks are carried out to steal money or confidential information. This social media threat is an example of social engineering tactics, whereby attackers exploit fear and anxiety, instead of system vulnerability to get users to part with their money. Since these attacks are so specific and targeted, the chances of success are higher.

c. Fake accounts

The seriousness of social media threats gets underscored when one considers that the fake account, in this case, was successful in connecting with hundreds of people from various organizations, including military, government, and security firms.

d. Social media used for spreading spam and malware

Social networking sites like Twitter and Facebook are often used to spread malware. The growing popularity of shortened URLs is also giving rise to several social media threats. Cybercriminals often mask their links with a short URL, making it difficult for them to identify whether it is pointing to a legitimate or malicious site. This threat is a real possibility for social bookmarking and microblogging sites, which are used to spread links and news in a very short period.

e. Confidential information leak

The scariest of social media threats is where employees start revealing seemingly uncritical technical information to the public. This could be a Twitter comment stating that the user is fed up configuring a particular firewall product at work or a status message indicating that the user finally found a way around a Web proxy product being used, and is now able to post to his profile again. An attacker could use this information to identify the security software of the user or the company.

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Types Of Computer (Classification-Of-Computer-On-The-Basis-Of-Size)

Types Of Computer (Classification-Of-Computer-On-The-Basis-Of-Size)

There are various types of computers based on size. But, mainly there are four types of computers. They are:

1. Super Computer
2. Mainframe Computer 
3. Mini Computer
4. Micro Computer

Super Computer

Supercomputers are the fastest computer. It is a digital computer with very processing with many processors. The same computer can be shared using the terminals. It has very storage capacities. It is very expensive and very large in size too. Supercomputers are used for very complex types of processing like weather forecasting, nuclear science research, etc.

They are fast processing with multi-user and multi-processor large computers of the very difficult and complex problem within nanoseconds. The word length of this computer is 64 bits. 

Example: CRAY X-MP-14, PARAM, etc,

Application of Supre Computer

1. They are used for weather forecasting.
2. They are used in military research and defense systems.
3. They are used for digital film rendering.
4. They are used to study DNA structure and genetic engineering.
5. They are used in automobiles, aircraft, and spacecraft design.
6. They are used in seismography, plasma, and nuclear research.

Mainframe Computer

Mainframe computers are smaller than a supercomputer. This is also very expensive and with very high speed. It supports about 100 users. It also contains more than one processor and can process the jobs simultaneously. It is also a multi-user computer system. This computer is not so popular these days.

It is a powerful multi-user computer used in large organizations such as businesses, industries, defense, etc. It can respond to any number of requests at a time. It uses several CPUs for data processing. More than 100 users can use it at a time because it works in time-sharing mode. Its word length is 48 bits to 64 bits. IBM built the first Mainframe Computer System/ 360, in 1964.

Application of Mainframe Computer

1. Electronic card processing
2. Bank management system
3. Marketing and advertisement 
4. Air traffic control system 
5. Industries and automation
6. Population census

Mini Computer

Mini-Computers are mid-range computers. Most of these types of computers are replaced by a client-server model nowadays. These computers can support about 20/25 users. Mini-computes are more powerful than microcomputers. It is costly than microcomputers. It is also used in universities, large business organizations to process complex data. It is also used in scientific research, engineering analysis and industrial proceed monitoring and control. Examples of these computers are PSP-11, VAX, etc.

Micro Computer 

A microcomputer is a computer with a microprocessor as its central processing unit. They are physically small compared to mainframe and minicomputers. Many microcomputers  (when equipped with a keyboard and screen for input and output) are also personal computers. 

The abbreviation "micro'' was common during the 1970s and 1980s but has now fallen out of common usage. Most notably, the microcomputer replaced the many separate components that made up of the mini computer's CPU with one integrated microprocessor chip. Microprocessors and semiconductor memory became less expensive so that microcomputers in turn grew cheaper and easier to use. Monitors keyboards and other devices for input and output may be integrated or separate. Computer memory in the form of RAM and at least one other less volatile, memory storage service is usually combined with the CPU on a system bus in one unit. Other devices that make up a complete microcomputer system include batteries, a power supply unit, a keyboard, and various input/output devices used to convey information to and from human operators (printers, monitors, human interface devices). Microcomputers are designed to serve only one user at a time, although they can often be modified with software or hardware to concurrently serve more than one user.

Desktop Computer

A desktop computer is a personal computer is a form intended for regular use at a single location, as opposed to a mobile laptop or portable computer. Before the widespread use of microprocessors, a computer that could fit on a desk was considered remarkably small. Desktop computers come in a variety of types ranging from large to small. ''Desktop'' can also indicate a  horizontally-oriented computer case usually intended to have the display screen placed on the top to save space on the desktop. Most modern desktop computers have separate screens and keyboards. 

The desktop has the advantage over laptops in that the spare parts and extensions tend to be standardized and upgraded to a greated\r extent too. This tends not to be the case for laptops, though adding or replacing some parts, like the optical drive, hard disk, and adding an extra memory module is often quite simple.

Laptop 

A laptop is a personal computer designed for mobile use. A laptop integrates most of the typical components of a desktop, a pointing device (a touchpad, also known as a trackpad, and/or a pointing stick), and speakers into a single unit. A laptop is powered by mains electricity via an AC adapter and can be used away from an outlet using a rechargeable battery. A laptop battery in new condition typically stores enough energy to run the laptop for three to five hours, depending on the computer usage configuration and power management settings. When the laptop is plugged into the mainline, the battery charges, whether or not the computer is running.

 Portable computers, originally monochrome CRT- based and developing into the modern laptop. ere originally considered to be a small market, mostly for specialized field applications such as the military, accountants, and sales representatives. As portable computers became smaller, lighter, and cheaper and as screens became larger and better quality, laptops became very widely used for all sorts of purposes.

PAD (Personal Digital Assistants)

A small-sized portable hand-held electronic device that has all the features of personal computers is called PDA. It has input, processing, storage, and output capability like the other microcomputers. This is used for diaries, calendars, address books, etc. We can transfer data from PDA. A personal digital assistant (PDA), also known as a palmtop computer, or personal data assistant, is a mobile device that functions as a personal information manager. Many PDAs can access the internet, intranets, or extranets via Wi-Fi or Wireless Wide Area Networks.

Tablet

Tablet is a portable computer that uses a touch screen as its primary input device. Tablets are less functional than laptops so it is cheaper. It is more portable and easy to carry on. It has touch and multi-figure gestures. IPad, Samsung, ZTE are the brand of tablets.

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Multimedia (Definition-Characteristics-Types-Of-Multimedia-In-Details)

Multimedia (Definition-Characteristics-Types-Of-Multimedia-Explained-In-Details)

Multimedia

The combination of two or more media is called multimedia. Multimedia is media and content that uses a combination of different content forms. The term is used in contrast to media that only use traditionally printed or hand-produced materials.

Multimedia includes a combination of the following things:

• Text 
• Graphics
• Image
• Music
• Video
• Animation video
• Interactivity content forms

Tay Vaughan declared "Multimedia as the combination of text, graphic art, sound, animation, and video that is delivered by computer.

Characteristics of Multimedia are :

1. Multimedia presentations can be viewed on stage, projected, transmitted, and played locally with a media player.
2. Boarcasts and recordings can be either analog to digital electronic media technology.
3. The various formats of technological or digital multimedia may be intended to enhance the user's experience.
4. Online multimedia is increasingly becoming object applications with collaborative end-user innovation and personalization on multiple forms of content over time.

Types of Multimedia are:

Text

 Its features are:

• Text mostly or widely used and flexible means of presenting information on-screen and conveying ideas.
• Text is an essential aspect of presenting the information.
• Like each element of the multimedia design, effective use of text can either direct user's/readers attention or divert it.
• Text is used in HTML and javascript to create contents on the internet that help in conveying the information to the users using the internet. 
• They are used in writing novel stories etc. using word processing software.
• Different font styles can be incorporated for designing eye-catching titles.
• Different word processing software such as notepad, WordPad is used to write text on PC.

Audio 

Its features are:

• Audio refers to sound. Multimedia can include files that contain sounds.
• Audio songs also come under the heading multimedia.
• Multimedia presentations often have some audio tracts which make it easier for people to understand.
• Multimedia phones have music players to run audio music.
• Various audio software includes a VLC media player, real player, etc.
• The extension of various audio files is .mp3. wav. m4a etc.

Pictures 

Its features are:

• Picture (image) is a two-dimensional screen display and a three-dimensional such as a statue or hologram.
• Graphs, pie charts, painting, etc. all come under images. Multimedia presentations use pictures or clip-art to make people understand. 
• Various file formats of images are .jpg. png. gif etc.
• Pictures are used to enhance the concept by including visible elements that push the topic to a server end.
• Windows photo viewers google photos etc. are some popular applications for displaying images.

Video

Its features are:

• The embedding of video in the multimedia application is a powerful way to convey information that can incorporate a personal element that other media lack.
• A video is a combination of moving objects in a frame and various audios attached to it.
• Video enhances, dramatizes, and gives impact to your multimedia application. 
• The advantage of integrating video into a multimedia presentation is the capacity to effectively convey a great deal of information in the least amount of time/
• VLC media player, windows, media player are popular examples of video playing software .mp4, .mkv, .wmv are some extensions of video files.

Animation

Its features are:

• Animation is the rapid display of a sequence of images of 2-D or 3-D artwork or model positions to create an illusion of movement.
• Animation adds visual impact to the multimedia project.
• Animation is used in cartoons, scientific visualization.
• Maya animation, tinkercard, etc. are used for making animated videos.

What is E-Commerce? Definition-advantages-History-benefits-of-E-Commerce.

What is E-Commerce? Definition-advantages-History-benefits-of-E-Commerce.

E-Commerce

E-Commerce is a business transaction that involves the transfer of information through the Internet. It is the use of the Internet as a platform for information exchange and monetary transactions. It means using the Internet and the web for business transactions and commercial transactions. It typically involves the exchange of value (money) across organizations or individuals in return for products and services. Hence, it is the electronic transaction such as buying, selling, and exchanging of goods, services, and information over the Internet. It consists of electronic retailing, electronic data interchange, and electronic fund transfer. Reducing cost, lowering the product cycle time, faster customer response, and delivering better quality service is the main goal of E-Commerce. There are many popular Nepalese online shopping sites such as daraz.com.np. netplay. com, BhatBhatenionline.com, Metrotarkari.com, kinmel.com. np, hamrobazaar.com, muncha.com, and many more. We can buy online and pay through different local payment gateways like e-Sewa, Khalti, or cash on delivery model. It is a modern business methodology that addresses the different drawbacks of traditional commerce. So, it refers to the paperless exchange of business information. People now are not only just using the Internet for gathering information, leisure, or socializing online but also at the same time they are seeking measures to conduct business. Even popular social networking sites like Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, etc. allow people to promote and sell products and services online.

History of E-Commerce

Online shopping, an important component of electronic commerce was invented by Michael Aldrich in the UK in 1979. The world's first recorded business to business was Thomson Holidays in 1981. Internet became popular worldwide around 1994 when the first Internet online shopping started. By the end of 2000, many European and American business companies offered their services through the World Wi Web. Since then people began to associate the word "E-Commerce" with the ability to purchase various goods through the Internet using secure protocols and electron payment services. The various objectives of E-Commerce are development business-relationship, better customer service, and getting more customers.

E-Commerce is driven by Internet Technology. The different technologies inclus Ty E-mail, fax, online shopping carts, electronic data interchange (EDI), online payment gateway, online security tools, information sharing, and distribution protocol, and different web services. The major business application areas of E-Commerce are:

1. Sale, Purchase of Goods 
2. Real Estate Market and Online Banking 
3. Delivery of Goods as well as Import and Export
4. Supply Chain Management and E-Tailing

Advantages of E-Commerce

E-Commerce and its associated technology have brought many changes in our daily usu lives. The benefits of E-Commerce are:

• A larger market as well as easy-to-find products.
• Customer insights through tracking and analytics as well as buying/selling anytime and anywhere.
• Fast response to consumer trends and market demand.
• Lower cost and does not require physical stores.
• Easy to sell online through social media as well.
• Personalized messaging and customers can review the comments and compare in different sites without moving around physically.

Limitations of E-Commerce

E-Commerce has many benefits but it also has some limitations. They are:

• Lack of personal touch
• Lack of physical experience and cannot touch the goods physically.
• Need for Internet access as transactions cannot be done without an Internet access device.
• Security issues of customers' information.
• Quality of product and services delivery.

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What is Internet? Definition-of-internet-history-of-internet-explained-in-details.

What is Internet? Definition-of-internet-history-explained-in-details.

Internet

The Internet is a worldwide collection of computer networks and gateways that use TCP/IP protocol to communicate with each other using wired or wireless technology. The Internet is called a "Network of networks " because all the smaller organizations are linked together into one giant network.

It is a backbone of high-speed data communication lines between nodes or host computers, consisting of commercial, governmental, educational, and another computer system that routes data and messages. Internet was originated in 1969 by ARPANET (Advanced Research Project Agency Network). ARPANET provides communication among the government department which was developed by the US department of defense. Internet was openly used throughout the world in 1992. Internet service was started in Nepal by Mercantile Company in 1994. The main advantages of the Internet are communication medium, information sharing, entertainment, and online services. The main disadvantages of the Internet are theft of personal information, spamming, pornography, and limited personal interaction. The components for Internet connection are:

1. Computer set
2. ISP account
3. Router/MODEM
4. Connection (Dial-up, DSL, Cable, Satellite, Fiber)
5. Web browser

A web browser is the client software that helps the user to access web pages. Examples of web browsers are google chrome, Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox. Internet service provider (ISP) is an organization that provides services for accessing and using the Internet. The ISP of Nepal is Mercantile, Via net, World Link, Broadlink, Subisu Classic Tech, etc. An Intranet is a private computer network that uses the Internet protocol to securely share any part of information of an organization. An extranet is a computer network that allows controlled access from outside for specific business or educational purposes. The services provided by the Internet are:

• www. (World Wide Web)
• E-mail (Electronic mail)
• Newsroom
• Telnet
• IRC (Internet Relay Chat)
• E-Commer
• Search engine

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WAP to print the following patterns: (USING SUB PROCEDURE)

WAP to print the following patterns:

1

1 1

1 1 1

1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1

CLS

CALL PAT

END

SUB PAT ( )

A$= "NEPAL''

FOR I = LEN (A$) TO 1   STEP -1

PRINT LEFT$ (A$,1)

NEXT I

END SUB

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Types of Computer Network: LAN, MAN, WAN. Explained-In-Details

Types of Computer Network: LAN, MAN, WAN. Explained-In-Details

 Types of network

Based on the size, physical and geographical division, a computer network can be categorized into three types. They are: 

1. Local Area Network (LAN)
2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
3. Wide Area Network (WAN)

Local Area Network (LAN)

It is a small computer network that is confined to a localized area, such as a building, an office, or a factory. LANs are found in most business enterprises, government offices, and educational institutions. The key purpose of a LAN is to serve its users in sharing data, information, programs, printer, hard disk, modem, etc. In this network, computers are mostly connected with a physical medium such as a twisted pair cable or coaxial cable.

The way of connecting two or more computers in a very limited area or within the same or adjacent building is called Local Area Network (LAN). It enables very high-speed communication through a wired connection or even a wireless connection. LAN is generally used by small organizations. It is less Server Compatible expensive to install and use. Computer lab networking and cyber networking are examples of LAN. The main features of Local Area Network (LAN) are

• It covers a small geographical area such as a room or building. 
• The communication quality is better and the data transfer rate is high.
• It supports Ethernet cables (thin cable, thick cable, and twisted pair cable), fiber, and wireless transmission in the communication transmission medium.
• Computers and devices are mostly connected by using wired media.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A MAN is a network that is larger than a LAN. It is called metropolitan since it normally covers the area of a city. Different hardware such as a router, bridge, etc., and transmission media such as physical as well as wireless are often used in MANS to cover larger distances efficiently. Usually, such networks are installed by governmental organizations, banks, or local big organizations to computerize their activities or business.

The way of connecting computers inside a metropolitan area or area such as a city is called Metropolitan Area Network (MAN). In MAN computers and devices are connected through wired or wireless technology or media. The radio wave is used to transmit the data for communication between the workstation and server in the system. It has high bandwidth capacity than WAN and low bandwidth than LAN.

The main features of the Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) are In MAN computers are connected by using wired or wireless media.

1. It is owned by single or multiple organizations.
2. It facilitates sharing of regional resources or data.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

A wide area network is a group of computers that are separated by large distances and tied together by communication facilities. It provides a fast and efficient exchange of information at a lesser cost and higher speeds. In this network, usually, the computers are linked utilizing a radio or microwave through a satellite.

It provides uplinks for connecting LANs to WAN or Internet. The connection of computers of networks covering a large area of the world with the help of wireless technology as a wave, frequency, and satellite is called Wide Area Network (WAN). The different types of LAN and MAN are connected to form a WAN. It is the largest computer network but the data transfer rate is slower than LAN and MAN. 4G or 5G Mobile Broadband Systems, satellite communication, Internet, etc. are examples of WAN. The main features of Wide Area Network (WAN) are. It cannot be restricted to any geographical location and uses wireless technology. It is owned by multiple organizations. Communication links are provided by public carriers like telephone or mobile networks, satellites, cable systems, etc. It has low bandwidth and high propagation delay.

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.

Computer Network and Data Communication/ It's advantages and disadvantages

Computer Network and Data Communication (What is Computer Network and Data Communication?) Its advantages and disadvantages

Computer Network

Data Communication and networking have changed how business and other daily affair works in this modern world. A computer network is a logical or physical interconnection between two or more computers that communicate with each other. It is used to share resources such as data files, application software, and hardware among users. A node can be a device like a computer, printer, scanner, etc. which is capable of sending or receiving data generated by other nodes on the network. Internet is an example of a computer network. A network must be able to meet certain criteria as performance, reliability, and scalability.

Advantages of a computer network:

1. Various resources, data, and information can be shared.
2. Faster as well as cheaper communication and data transmission. Different types of hardware devices, as well as software components, can be shared.
3. Office automation can be effective and well managed.
4. Provides data backup facility as data and information can be stored in the file server.

Disadvantages of a computer network:

1. High installation and administrative costs.
2. Attack on the privacy of the people.
3. A computer virus can easily spread via a network. If the server is out of order, then all workstations are disturbed.
4. Trained technical support is required.
5. Components of Computer Network

Component of Computer Network

1. Computer System
2. Transmission media( wired or wireless)
3. Network software.
4. Network connectivity devices
5. Protocol 

Data Communication and Networking

Data communication

Data communication is the exchange of data between a source and a receiver. Data can be exchanged or transmitted using different media like cable medium and wireless medium. Different methods can be used to exchange the data. Some of the examples of data communication are E-mail, sharing of files, phone calls, video chatting, etc.

A computer network is an interconnected collection of two or more two computers that are capable of exchanging data, information, and hardware through a suitable medium, the medium may be wired or wireless. Network users can share files, printers, and other resources, send electronic messages and run programs and even turn off the other computers.

The process of transferring data and information between computers is called data communications. The data is exchanged in the form of 0's and 1's. The transmission medium used in data communication can be wired or wireless technology. The two types of data communication are local and remote data communication. Local data communication takes place in the same geographical area whereas remote data communication takes place over a distance. The data communication can be measured through the following features:

1. Delivery: The data is delivered to the right destination.
2. Timeliness: The data is delivered on time.
3. Accuracy: The data is delivered in an accurate and correct format.

Components of Data Communication

a) Message: The data and information that is to be delivered.

b) Sender: The person who is sending the message.

c) Receiver: The person to whom the message is being sent.

d) Medium: The channel through which the message is sent. 

e) Protocol: The set of rules which govern data communication.

Network Software

A Network Operating System (NOS) is a type of software that manages network resources, controls the flow of data, maintains security, and tracks user accounts. It consists of computer programs that establish protocols, or rules, for computers to talk to one another. These protocols are carried out by sending and receiving formatted instructions of data called packets. Protocols make logical connections between the computers in a network, transfer packets from one computer to another, and minimize the possibility of collisions between packets sent simultaneously. Some popular Network Operating Systems (NOSS) are Novel NetWare, Windows NT, Windows server 2003/2008, Various GNU/Linux, Solaris, etc.

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Types Of Computers (types-of-computers-Analog-digital-hybrid computer) Basis of working principle

Types Of Computers (types-of-computers-Analog-digital-hybrid computer) Basis of working principle

Types of computer

Classification of the computer-based on working principle

There are three types of computers based on the working principle. they are:

1. Analog computer
2. Digital computer and
3. Hybrid computer

Discrete vs. Continuous Signals

Analog and digital signals have different kinds of natures. Analog devices use analog signals and digital devices use digital signals. Analog signal has continuous values like 0, 0.5, 0.9, 1, etc. Digital signal has two extreme values representing on and off states. if two extreme values are o volt and I volt, there will not be any intermediate values, either it will be o or it will be 1.

Analog Computer

Analog computer deals with the continuous data. It is used to process physical quantities such as voltage, length, current, temperature, etc. Analog devices like speedometers, voltmeters, etc. are used to measure the physical quantities using the analog computer. It processes the data faster. The accuracy level is low. The storage capacity of an analog computer is very low. These types of computers are used in the held of science and engineering. These are used in airplanes and medical equipment as well.

A computer that uses an analog signal to display information is called an analog computer. A more recent and common mechanical analog computer is the slide rule. The electronic analog computer works on the same principles but uses electrical components to replace the physical parts. An analog computer measures physical values such as temperature or pressure that fall along a continuous scale in temperature or pressure. These computers are used to measure the speed of the vehicle, Vibration of the earthquake, Heart bit and pulse rate of the patient, to measure nautical distance covered by plane, etc. The characteristics of an analog computer mean it can be better than a digital computer at particular tasks. The first is that an analog computer works in parallel. This means it can carry out multiple tasks simultaneously. The second difference is that an analog computer handles continuous variables. It is used to measure continuous data like current flow, temperatures, blood pressure, heartbeats.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS BASED ON WORK

Analog Computer

A computer that uses an analog signal to display information is called an analog computer. A more recent and common mechanical analog computer is the slide rule. The electronic analog computer works on the same principles but uses electrical components to replace the physical parts. An analog computer measures physical values such as temperature or pressure that fall along a continuous scale in temperature or pressure. These computers are used to measure the speed of the vehicle, Vibration of the earthquake, Heart bit and pulse rate of the patient, to measure nautical distance covered by plane, etc. The characteristics of an analog computer mean it can be better than a digital computer at particular tasks. The first is that an analog computer works in parallel. This means it can carry out multiple tasks simultaneously. The second difference is that an analog computer handles continuous variables. It is used to measure the continuous variation of data like current flow, temperatures, blood pressure, heartbeats.

Digital Computer

Computers that use binary digits to display discrete information is called a digital computer. A computer that stores data in terms of binary digits (0 and 1) and proceeds in discrete steps from one state to the next. Information is in discrete form. It displays information in the form of text, graphics, and pictures. The states of a digital computer typically involve binary digits which may take the form of the presence or absence of magnetic markers in storage medium on-off switches. In digital computers, even letters, words, and whole texts are represented digitally. Unlike analog computers, digital computers can only approximate a range by assigning large numbers of digits to a state description and by proceeding in arbitrarily small steps. A digital computer, even though it may work considerably faster, can only perform one calculation at any one instant. A digital computer works with discrete numbers. Digital computers are the most used computer for reports, documentation, billing, and other graphical work. The entire PC used today in different fields is the microcomputers. 

Hybrid Computer

The good qualities of analog and digital computers are combined on hybrid computers. These are used in the Intensive Care Unit of the hospital. Jet Planes and other data analysis terminals. Hybrid computers transfer the data from analog to digital and digital to analog and vice versa. Consider that the nervous system in animals is a form of hybrid computer. In a hybrid computer, a digital computer that accepts analog signals converts them to digital and processes them in digital form. This integration is obtained by digital to analog and analog to digital converter. A hybrid computer may use or produce analog data or digital data. It accepts a continuously varying input, which is then converted into a set of discrete values for digital processing A hybrid computer system setup offers a cost-effective method of performing complex simulations. A hybrid computer capable of the real-time solution has been less expensive than any equivalent digital computer. Hybrid computers have been necessary for successful system development. An example of a hybrid computer used in hospitals to measure the heartbeat of the patient. Hybrid Machines are generally used in scientific applications or in controlling industrial processes.

Computers are mainly classified into specific purpose and general-purpose computers. The specific purpose computers are Supercomputer, Hybrid computer, etc. General-purpose computers are all digital

Digital Computer

Digital computers deal with discrete or discontinuous data. Data will be in the form of binary digits 0 and 1 and all the operations are based on these two extreme values 0 and 1 representing on and off stages in terms of voltage. Digital computers are more accurate and used for general purposes. Most of the computers are digital computers. Varieties of tasks can be done by using a digital computer. These are used in education, business activities, scientific applications, etc.

Computers that use binary digits to display discrete information is called a digital computer. A computer that stores data in terms of binary digits (0 and 1) and proceeds in discrete steps from one state to the next. Information is in discrete form. It displays information in the form of text, graphics, and pictures. The states of a digital computer typically involve binary digits which may take the form of the presence or absence of magnetic markers in storage medium on-off switches. In digital computers, even letters, words, and whole texts are represented digitally. Unlike analog computers, digital computers can only approximate a range by assigning large numbers of digits to a state description and by proceeding in arbitrarily small steps. A digital computer, even though it may work considerably faster, can only perform one calculation at any one instant. A digital computer works with discrete numbers. Digital computers are the most used computer for reports, documentation, billing, and other graphical work. The entire PC used today in different fields is the microcomputers. 

Hybrid Computer

The hybrid computer has the characteristics of both analog and digital computers. This type of computer can deal with continuous and discrete data. Hence it is called the hybrid computer. Hybrid computes is specific purpose computers or not a general-purpose computer. Hybrid computers are used in the medical field, aeronautics, weather forecasting, etc.

The good qualities of analog and digital computers are combined on hybrid computers. These are used in the Intensive Care Unit of the hospital. Jet Planes and other data analysis terminals. Hybrid computers transfer the data from analog to digital and digital to analog and vice versa. Consider that the nervous system in animals is a form of hybrid computer. In a hybrid computer, a digital computer that accepts analog signals converts them to digital and processes them in digital form. This integration is obtained by digital to analog and analog to digital converter. A hybrid computer may use or produce analog data or digital data. It accepts a continuously varying input, which is then converted into a set of discrete values for digital processing A hybrid computer system setup offers a cost-effective method of performing complex simulations. A hybrid computer capable of the real-time solution has been less expensive than any equivalent digital computer. Hybrid computers have been necessary for successful system development. An example of a hybrid computer used in hospitals to measure the heartbeat of the patient. Hybrid Machines are generally used in scientific applications or in controlling industrial processes.

Computers are mainly classified into specific purpose and general-purpose computers. The specific purpose computers are Supercomputer, Hybrid computer, etc. General-purpose computers are all digital computers.

General-purpose computer

A computer that performs a variety of processing tasks with almost the same efficiency is called a general-purpose computer. It requires loading an appropriate program for performing each particular task. Some features of these computers are given below.

1. They perform a wide variety of processing tasks. They perform any kind of job with equal frequency.
2. They are most common.
3. They are digital computers.

SPECIAL PURPOSE COMPUTER

A specials purpose computer is built to handle a specific task. This means that the programs are fixed for the machine. For example, a modern microwave oven may contain a computer device that is programmed to accept the cooking option which the user chooses, and direct the machine accordingly. The special-purpose computers are of following features.

1. They are fundamentally the same as a general-purpose computer.
2. They are programmed for a specific purpose. They cannot perform another kind of job with equal efficiency.
3. They are used in a variety of consumer products, microwaves, telephone, washing machines, etc/
4. They cannot perform another kind of job with equal efficiency.

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What is Computer Software? Operating system? System software-software-Types-of-computer-software

What is Computer Software? Operating-system-Computer-software-Types-of-computer-software

Software is the collection of computer programs and procedures to perform a specific task.

INTRODUCTION  

What most people think of as a computer, can actually be divided into two-part The first part, computer hardware- does all of the physical work computers a known for. The second part, computer software- tells the hardware what to do a how to do it. If you were to think of a computer as a living being, then the hardware would be the body that does things like seeing with eyes, lifting objects, and filling the lungs with air; the software would be the intelligence, interpreting the image that comes through the eye telling the arms how to lift objects, and forcing the body to fill the lungs with air.

Program is a very important concept in computer. Now "What is Program? " A program is a collection of instructions to cause a computer to perform a particular operation to solve a given problem. Thus, a computer requires a program to operate. And, the process of developing such a program is called Programming. Similarly, the langue that is used to develop the program is called Programming Language. Also, the person who does programming is called a Programmer.

SOFTWARE 

Software is a short form of computer software; it is a type of computer program. It means the applications and operating systems used with computers. Software is how computer systems speak with computer users. Software form the heart of computer systems. Software is the collection of computer programs, procedures, and documentation that performs different tasks on a computer system. At the very basic level, computer software consists of a machine language that consists of groups of binary values which specify processor instructions. The processor instructions change the state of computer hardware in a predefined sequence. Briefly, computer software is the language in which a computer speaks. There are different types of computer software.

Software is one of the essential parts of the computer system. It is a collection of related programs, data, and required documents. The computer cannot be used without computer software. A computer program is a collection of related instructions written in a proper sequential order to perform a specific job. There are different kinds of software in the computer like system software, application software, and utility software. Some of the examples of software are Windows 2007, MS Word, etc.

Software is the collection of computer programs and procedures to perform a specific task.

SYSTEM SOFTWARE

System software is computer software designed to operate the computer hardware and to provide a platform for running application software It helps in running the computer hardware and the computer system. System software is a collection of operating systems; device drivers, servers, windowing systems, and utilities

System software helps an application programmer in viewing away from hardware, memory, and other internal complexities of a computer. Some common types of system software are given below: 

1. Operating system

2. Utility software

3. Language processor

OPERATING SYSTEM

The operating system is the most important program that runs on a computer. Every general-purpose computer must have an operation to run. other programs. Operating systems perform basic tasks such as It is the first program loaded into memory when the computer is turned on and, in a sense, brings life. to the computer hardware. Without it. you cannot use your word processing software, spreadsheet software, or any other applications.

Without an operating system, you cannot communicate with your computer. When you give the computer command, the operating system relays the instructions to the brain' of the computer, called the microprocessor or CPU. You cannot speak directly to the CPU because it only understands machine language. When you are working in an application, software program, such as Microsoft Word, commands that you give the application sent through the operating system to the CPU. MS Window, Mac OS, Unix, Linux, Android, and DOS are all examples of operating systems. Some functions of OS are given below.

1. recognizing input from the keyboard

2. sending output to the display screen

3. keeping track of files and directories on the disk

4. Controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers.

5. Provide security and backup.

6. Provide an interface between hardware and software.

7. Management of memory Scheduling processes.

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MECHANICAL CALCULATORS (abacus-slide rule-Napier 's bone)

abacus-slide rule-Napier 's bone

MECHANICAL CALCULATORS 

ABACUS mechanical calculators, Abacus, slide rule, Napier's bone

What is Abacus?

The history of computers starts with Abacus. It was first used by the Chinese about 3000 years before. There were different types of abacuses used in different parts of the world. The standard abacus can be used to perform addition, subtraction, division, and multiplication. It can be used to find square roots and cube roots as well. Abacus consists of two sections or decks. The upper deck is known as the heaven and the lower deck is known as the earth. Each based in the upper deck has a value of 5 and the value for each bead in the lower deck is1. Usually, it is made up of a wooden frame.

NAPIER'S BONE

What is Napier's Bone? who invented it and when?

Napier's Bone is a mechanical calculating machine. It was developed by Scottish mathematician John Napier in 1617 AD. Several bones or rods with numbers in them are used for calculations. Ten bones are corresponding to the digits 0 through 9, and the eleventh bones as a multiplier. It is used for multiplication, division, finding roots, etc.

SLIDE RULE

 What is Slide Rule? when was it invented?

Slide Rule is another mechanical calculating device developed by an English Mathematician William Oughtred in 1620. In the slide rule, two rulers are used to slide one over another big ruler for the calculations. It was used for addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.

BABBAGE'S DIFFERENCE AND ANALYTICAL ENGINE (1792-1822)

What is an analytical engine?

Who is known as the father of computers?

what is the difference between Engines?

Charles Babbage was a British mathematician and inventor. He designed the first Difference Engine in 1822 AD and upgraded it into Analytical Engine in 1833 AD. It was the proposed first general-purpose mechanical computer.  This invention is considered a major contribution to the evolution of the computer, It was a kind of the general-purpose computer. It was using the concept of memory and punched card input/output for data and instructions. He had introduced all the essential ideas of modern computers. To  recognize his contributions, Charles Babbage is known as the "Father of the Modern Computer"

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History of computer development

HISTORY OF COMPUTER DEVELOPMENT

The first computer was invented by CHARLES BABBAGE in 1822 AD. but was not built until 1991. Alan Turing invented computer science. The ENIAC (1945) was the first electronic general-purpose digital computer, it filled a room.

 In the past, the size of the computer was very huge and it used to occupy large space. They were very low in function and it heats faster. At first computing devices or computers were used mechanically only. Then they were upgraded from electronic to electromechanical machines or semi-electrical. Then they were upgraded to today's electronic computers. The cost of the memory was very high and the size was very small. Nowadays the cost of the memory is low and the size is very high.

DEFINITION OF THE COMPUTER

Let's define the word 'computer' first. It means 'to calculate'. we all are familiar with these words with the calculation in our practice in our daily life. We apply mathematical operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, etc. Simpler calculations take time but complex calculations take much longer time. The calculation of any type of task is performed by a computer within a seconds. Let us again define the term ''computer'' according to the OXFORD DICTIONARY ''Computer is an automatic electronic device for making calculation and controlling operations that are expressed in numerical and logical terms".

COMPUTER is an electronic device that takes the data from a user, processes them, and produces meaningful results.

The computer is used for any type of computer complex task nowadays. It is used in every field in our life. There is no sector computer is not using. Increasing with time the demand for computers is increasing consistently. It is used in Banking and Financial institute for electronic money transfer, statical report, voucher, ledger, balance sheet, etc. It is used in Educational/institutions for student data processing, questions preparation, result processing, handouts and notes preparation, etc. It is used in the searched field on different types of research activities such as account, database, graphics,, mathematics, etc.        

It is also used in hospitals for keeping records of medical, surgery, and research as well as. In engineering such as civil, electrical, computer, chemical, etc. In different fields, computers are used for advertisement, education advertisement, etc. The computer is used in the film industry to develop cartoon films, special effects, and image processing. Animation is a sequence of images or frames that is displayed overtimes. Each frame varies slightly from the preceding frame. The art of animation is abundantly supplied in film industries and the advertisement sector.

E-mail, e-fax, internet, etc. are computer-based communications. The integration of computers and the Internet is the backbone of recent communication. Computer software is used for the management of the library. It is used for keeping books borrowing books, records, updating books, etc. The computerized system ensures whether the books are issued or not. Computers are also used in the industry, hotel management, offices, game playing, office automation, management, and many more.

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